Law is the set of enforceable rules that regulate human activity and establishes the rights and obligations of individuals and groups. It can be enforced by the state through mechanisms such as sanctions and criminal prosecution. The precise nature of law is a subject of longstanding debate and is often closely related to philosophical questions of morality, politics and economics.
The term “law” is not confined to formal written legislation, but can also be used to describe a set of informal norms and expectations that guide human behaviour. For example, the “rules of the road” are a set of laws that a driver must follow to ensure the safety of other people. Similarly, a “code of honour” is a set of values that guides a person in their interactions with others.
Although the concept of law is largely a social construct, a number of theories have emerged to explain its origins and development. These theories often differ in their emphasis on historical and contextual factors, as well as the role of a specific social group.
One recurring theme in legal philosophy is the idea that the creation of law is a matter of power. Thus, some thinkers have argued that laws are simply orders, backed by threats of punishment, issued by sovereigns to whom people naturally obey. This view of the origins of law was formulated by Jeremy Bentham and influenced later utilitarian philosophers such as John Austin.
Others have argued that the law is a natural, unchanging and inviolate collection of principles that govern human actions. For example, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that there are natural laws of reason and of right and wrong, which are independent of the whims of individuals or societies. This view of the origins of law is known as natural law theory and influenced later writers such as Thomas Aquinas.
A third approach argues that the law is an instrument of social engineering, with the purpose of serving the needs and interests of society. Roscoe Pound used this idea to develop his concept of the “law-making machine,” whereby societal wants and interests are reflected in a set of logically structured laws.
Other factors that shape the creation and enforcement of laws include:
The law may be created by a legislative body, with enacted statutes; by the executive branch through decrees and regulations; or by judges in common-law systems via the “doctrine of precedent” (which allows decisions made in previous cases to bind lower courts). Private individuals may create legally binding contracts through arbitration agreements.
An important element of law is its consistency, so that people can expect to know what the consequences of their actions will be, and plan accordingly. This requires measures to ensure the supremacy of law, equality before the law, transparency in decision-making, and protection against official arbitrariness. See constitution; censorship; crime and punishment; and government for more on these topics.